Llanos Basin

05°24′00″N 71°40′00″W / 5.40000°N 71.66667°W / 5.40000; -71.66667EtymologyLlanos Orientales
Spanish: "eastern plains"RegionOrinoquíaCountry ColombiaState(s)Arauca, Boyacá, Casanare, Cundinamarca, Guainía, Guaviare, Meta, Norte de SantanderCitiesVillavicencio, YopalCharacteristicsOn/OffshoreOnshoreBoundariesColombia-Venezuela border (N), Guiana Shield (E), Vaupés Arch (S), Serranía de la Macarena (SW), Eastern Ranges (W)Part ofAndean foreland basinsArea96,000 km² (37,000 sq mi)HydrologyRiver(s)Orinoco watershed
Main rivers: Arauca, Meta, Guaviare, VichadaGeologyBasin typeForeland on rift basin^{[note 1]}PlateSouth American^{[note 3]}OrogenyBreak-up of Pangea (Mesozoic)
Andean (Cenozoic)AgePaleozoic or Jurassic^{[note 2]}
to HoloceneStratigraphyStratigraphyFaultsEastern (W, bounding), Chichimene & MetaField(s)Rubiales, Caño Limón, many more

The Llanos Basin (Spanish: Cuenca Llanos) or Eastern Llanos Basin (Spanish: Cuenca de los Llanos Orientales) is a major sedimentary basin of 96,000 square kilometres (37,000 sq mi) in northeastern Colombia. The onshore foreland on Mesozoic rift basin covers the departments of Arauca, Casanare and Meta and parts of eastern Boyacá and Cundinamarca, western Guainía, northern Guaviare and southeasternmost Norte de Santander. The northern boundary is formed by the border with Venezuela, where the basin grades into the Barinas-Apure Basin.

Description

The northeastern part of Colombia is characterized by its wavy plains, called Llanos Orientales, as part of the bigger Llanos that extend into Venezuela. The landscape is similar to a savanna and is poor in trees. It is located between the Eastern Ranges of the Colombian Andes in the west, the Vaupés Arch in the south and the Guiana Shield in the east.^[1]

Geologically, the Llanos Basin underlies this typical landscape of the Llanos. An area where transport occurs mostly by small boats along the many rivers and the "buses of the Llanos", the Douglas DC-3 planes. The basin covers an area of 96,000 square kilometres (37,000 sq mi) and contains a stratigraphic column from the Paleozoic to recent.^[2] Several of the formations in the basins are source rocks (Gachetá, Los Cuervos, Carbonera C8), reservoir rocks (Mirador, Barco, Guadalupe and the uneven numbered members of Carbonera). Seals are formed by the shaly intervals (even numbered) of the Carbonera Formation, Los Cuervos, and León.^[3]

The basin is the main petroleum producing basin of Colombia, with four of the nations biggest oil fields located in the Llanos Basin. Major fields are Rubiales, Colombia's biggest and most recent giant discovery sealed by a complex of hydrodynamic processes, and Caño Limón, at the border with Venezuela.

Major concerns in the basin for the production of petroleum are biodegradation, hydrocarbon migration, fault seal capacity and water flow.

Hydrography

The Llanos Basin is crossed by numerous rivers, all belonging to the Orinoco watershed. From north to south:

Flora and fauna

Fauna

Among other species, Lynch's swamp frog (Pseudopaludicola llanera) is endemic to the Llanos, with the species epithet referring to the plains.^[4] Also the whip scorpion Mastigoproctus colombianus is reported from the Llanos Basin.^[5]

Geodynamic situation

The country of Colombia spreads out over six tectonic plates, clockwise from north:

1. Caribbean Plate
2. North Andes Plate
3. South American Plate
4. Malpelo Plate
5. Coiba Plate
6. Panama Plate

The Llanos Basin is situated entirely on the South American Plate, bordering the North Andean Block or North Andean microplate in the west. The basin is one of three Colombian basins on the South American Plate, to the south the Caguán-Putumayo Basin and to the southeast the Vaupés-Amazonas Basin. The northern boundary of the Llanos Basin is formed by the Colombia-Venezuela border where the basin grades into the Barinas-Apure Basin on the Venezuelan side. The Catatumbo Basin, representing the Colombian portion of the larger Maracaibo Basin borders the Llanos Basin in the northwest and the western boundary is formed by the foothills (Piedemonte) of the Eastern Cordillera Basin, the sedimentary basin covering the Eastern Ranges of the Colombian Andes.

Tectonics

The basin is bound to the west by the Eastern Frontal Fault System, a 921.4 kilometres (572.5 mi) long fault system connecting the North Andes and South American Plates and thus the Eastern Cordillera Basin and the Llanos Basin. The fault system has an average strike of 042.1±19, but this orientation varies greatly along its course. The 1827, 1834, 1917, 1967, 1995, and 2008 earthquakes were all caused by fault movement as part of the system.^[6]

Basin history

The tectonic history of the Llanos Basin, a foreland basin formed on top of Mesozoic rift basins, Paleozoic metasediments and Precambrian basement underlain by continental crust, goes back to the Early Jurassic.

The Andean orogeny, represented by the tectonic uplift of the Colombian Eastern Ranges and its northern extension, the Serranía del Perijá, caused tilting and uplift in the Llanos Basin. During the Andean orogenic phase, the paleotemperatures in the basin dropped considerably; in the Baja Guajira area from 115 °C (239 °F) in the Early Miocene to 70 °C (158 °F) in the Late Miocene.^[7] In the Late Miocene to Pliocene, the major faults to the southwest of the Cocinetas Basin, the Oca and Bucaramanga-Santa Marta Faults were tectonically active.^[8]

Basement

The stratigraphy of the Llanos Basin ranges, depending on the definition from either Jurassic or Paleozoic to recent. The basement is formed by the westernmost extensions of the Guiana Shield. Remnants of these Precambrian formations are found as inselbergs in the far east of Colombia (Cerros de Mavecure), in the Serranía de la Macarena to the southwest of the basin and in the tepuis of the Serranía de Chiribiquete to the southeast.

The Proterozoic crystalline rocks are overlain by metamorphosed sedimentary and igneous rocks ranging in age from Cambrian to Devonian. Younger and contemporaneous Paleozoic deposits are only found in the subsurface and in regional correlative units as the Floresta and Cuche Formations of the Altiplano Cundiboyacense to the direct northwest and the Río Cachirí Group of the Cesar-Ranchería Basin farther northwest of the Llanos Basin.

The units found in the Llanos Basin pertain to the Farallones Group and comprise the Valle del Guatiquía Red Beds, Pipiral Shale and the Gutiérrez Sandstone.^[9]

Stratigraphy

Stratigraphy of the Llanos Basin and surrounding provinces

Ma	Age	Paleomap	Regional events	Catatumbo	Cordillera	proximal Llanos	distal Llanos	Putumayo	VSM	Environments	Maximum thickness	Petroleum geology	Notes
0.01	Holocene		Holocene volcanism Seismic activity	alluvium								Overburden
1	Pleistocene		Pleistocene volcanism Andean orogeny 3 Glaciations	Guayabo	Soatá Sabana	Necesidad	Guayabo	Gigante Neiva		Alluvial to fluvial (Guayabo)	550 m (1,800 ft) (Guayabo)		[10][11][12][13]
2.6	Pliocene		Pliocene volcanism Andean orogeny 3 GABI		Subachoque
5.3	Messinian		Andean orogeny 3 Foreland		Marichuela			Caimán	Honda				[12][14]
13.5	Langhian		Regional flooding	León	hiatus	Caja	León			Lacustrine (León)	400 m (1,300 ft) (León)	Seal	[13][15]
16.2	Burdigalian		Miocene inundations Andean orogeny 2	C1		Carbonera C1		Ospina		Proximal fluvio-deltaic (C1)	850 m (2,790 ft) (Carbonera)	Reservoir	[14][13]
17.3				C2		Carbonera C2				Distal lacustrine-deltaic (C2)		Seal
19				C3		Carbonera C3				Proximal fluvio-deltaic (C3)		Reservoir
21	Early Miocene		Pebas wetlands	C4		Carbonera C4			Barzalosa	Distal fluvio-deltaic (C4)		Seal
23	Late Oligocene		Andean orogeny 1 Foredeep	C5		Carbonera C5		Orito		Proximal fluvio-deltaic (C5)		Reservoir	[11][14]
25				C6		Carbonera C6				Distal fluvio-lacustrine (C6)		Seal
28	Early Oligocene			C7		C7		Pepino	Gualanday	Proximal deltaic-marine (C7)		Reservoir	[11][14][16]
32	Oligo-Eocene			C8	Usme	C8	onlap			Marine-deltaic (C8)		Seal Source	[16]
35	Late Eocene			Mirador		Mirador				Coastal (Mirador)	240 m (790 ft) (Mirador)	Reservoir	[13][17]
40	Middle Eocene				Regadera				hiatus
45
50	Early Eocene			Socha		Los Cuervos				Deltaic (Los Cuervos)	260 m (850 ft) (Los Cuervos)	Seal Source	[13][17]
55	Late Paleocene		PETM 2000 ppm CO2	Los Cuervos	Bogotá				Gualanday
60	Early Paleocene		SALMA	Barco	Guaduas	Barco		Rumiyaco		Fluvial (Barco)	225 m (738 ft) (Barco)	Reservoir	[10][11][14][13][18]
65	Maastrichtian		KT extinction	Catatumbo	Guadalupe				Monserrate	Deltaic-fluvial (Guadalupe)	750 m (2,460 ft) (Guadalupe)	Reservoir	[10][13]
72	Campanian		End of rifting	Colón-Mito Juan									[13][19]
83	Santonian							Villeta/Güagüaquí
86	Coniacian
89	Turonian		Cenomanian-Turonian anoxic event	La Luna	Chipaque	Gachetá	hiatus			Restricted marine (all)	500 m (1,600 ft) (Gachetá)	Source	[10][13][20]
93	Cenomanian		Rift 2
100	Albian				Une	Une		Caballos		Deltaic (Une)	500 m (1,600 ft) (Une)	Reservoir	[14][20]
113	Aptian			Capacho	Fómeque			Motema	Yaví	Open marine (Fómeque)	800 m (2,600 ft) (Fómeque)	Source (Fóm)	[11][13][21]
125	Barremian		High biodiversity	Aguardiente	Paja					Shallow to open marine (Paja)	940 m (3,080 ft) (Paja)	Reservoir	[10]
129	Hauterivian		Rift 1	Tibú- Mercedes	Las Juntas	hiatus				Deltaic (Las Juntas)	910 m (2,990 ft) (Las Juntas)	Reservoir (LJun)	[10]
133	Valanginian			Río Negro	Cáqueza Macanal Rosablanca					Restricted marine (Macanal)	2,935 m (9,629 ft) (Macanal)	Source (Mac)	[11][22]
140	Berriasian			Girón
145	Tithonian		Break-up of Pangea	Jordán	Arcabuco	Buenavista Batá		Saldaña		Alluvial, fluvial (Buenavista)	110 m (360 ft) (Buenavista)	"Jurassic"	[14][23]
150	Early-Mid Jurassic		Passive margin 2	La Quinta	Montebel Noreán	hiatus				Coastal tuff (La Quinta)	100 m (330 ft) (La Quinta)		[24]
201	Late Triassic			Mucuchachi				Payandé					[14]
235	Early Triassic		Pangea		hiatus							"Paleozoic"
250	Permian
300	Late Carboniferous		Famatinian orogeny						Cerro Neiva ()				[25]
340	Early Carboniferous		Fossil fish Romer's gap		Cuche (355-385)	Farallones ()				Deltaic, estuarine (Cuche)	900 m (3,000 ft) (Cuche)
360	Late Devonian		Passive margin 1	Río Cachirí (360-419)					Ambicá ()	Alluvial-fluvial-reef (Farallones)	2,400 m (7,900 ft) (Farallones)		[22][26][27][28][29]
390	Early Devonian		High biodiversity	Floresta (387-400) El Tíbet						Shallow marine (Floresta)	600 m (2,000 ft) (Floresta)
410	Late Silurian		Silurian mystery
425	Early Silurian			hiatus
440	Late Ordovician		Rich fauna in Bolivia	San Pedro (450-490)		Duda ()
470	Early Ordovician		First fossils		Busbanzá (>470±22) Chuscales Otengá	Guape ()		Río Nevado ()	Hígado () Agua Blanca Venado (470-475)				[30][31][32]
488	Late Cambrian		Regional intrusions	Chicamocha (490-515)	Quetame ()	Ariarí ()		SJ del Guaviare (490-590)	San Isidro ()				[33][34]
515	Early Cambrian		Cambrian explosion										[32][35]
542	Ediacaran		Break-up of Rodinia		pre-Quetame		post-Parguaza		El Barro ()	Yellow: allochthonous basement (Chibcha Terrane) Green: autochthonous basement (Río Negro-Juruena Province)		Basement	[36][37]
600	Neoproterozoic		Cariri Velhos orogeny	Bucaramanga (600-1400)				pre-Guaviare					[33]
800			Snowball Earth										[38]
1000	Mesoproterozoic		Sunsás orogeny			Ariarí (1000)			La Urraca (1030-1100)				[39][40][41][42]
1300			Rondônia-Juruá orogeny			pre-Ariarí	Parguaza (1300-1400)		Garzón (1180-1550)				[43]
1400				pre-Bucaramanga									[44]
1600	Paleoproterozoic						Maimachi (1500-1700)		pre-Garzón				[45]
1800			Tapajós orogeny				Mitú (1800)						[43][45]
1950			Transamazonic orogeny				pre-Mitú						[43]
2200			Columbia
2530	Archean		Carajas-Imataca orogeny										[43]
3100			Kenorland
Sources

Legend

• group
• important formation
• fossiliferous formation
• minor formation
• (age in Ma)
• proximal Llanos (Medina)^{[note 4]}
• distal Llanos (Saltarin 1A well)^{[note 5]}

Paleozoic

Cambro-Ordovician

• Guape Formation
• Duda Formation
• Ariarí Formation
• Ariarí Metagabbro

Pre-Devonian

• Quetame Group
  • Río Guamal Metasiltstones
  • Guayabetal Phyllites and Quartzites
  • San Cristóbal Quartzites and Phyllites
  • Susumuco Metaconglomerates and Phyllites

Devonian

• Farallones Group
  • Valle del Guatiquía Red Beds
  • Pipiral Shale
  • Gutiérrez Sandstone

Jurassic

• Buenavista Breccia

Petroleum geology

The Llanos Basin is the most prolific hydrocarbon basin of Colombia, hosting well-known petroleum deposits as Caño Limón, Rubiales and other fields. Nine of the twenty most producing oil fields of Colombia are situated in the Llanos Basin.

Fields

Based on data released in March 2018, Colombia is the 21st oil producer in the world. Daily production dropped in 2017 to 854.121 thousand barrels per day (135.7944×10^³ m³/d).^[50] In 2016, twenty oilfields produced 66% of all oil of Colombia, listed below in bold.^[51] The total proven reserves of Colombia were 1,665.489 million barrels (264.7916×10^⁶ m³) in 2016.^[52]

Major oil fields in the Llanos Basin are:^[53]

Major oil and gas fields of the Llanos Basin

Name	Map	Location	Operator	Reservoirs	Reserves Production (2016)	Notes
Rubiales		Puerto Gaitán Meta	Ecopetrol	Carbonera 7	4,380 million bbl (696 million m3) 132.000 kbbl/d (20.9863×10^3 m3/d)
Castilla		Castilla la Nueva Meta	Ecopetrol	Mirador Gachetá Une	452 million bbl (71.9 million m3) 121.363 kbbl/d (19.2952×10^3 m3/d)	[54][55]
Chichimene		Acacias Meta	Ecopetrol	Mirador Guadalupe Gachetá Une	74.052 kbbl/d (11.7733×10^3 m3/d)	[56][57]
Quifa		Puerto Gaitán Meta	Meta Petroleum	Carbonera	613 million bbl (97.5 million m3) 46.557 kbbl/d (7.4020×10^3 m3/d)	[58][59]
Caño Limón		Puerto Rondón Arauca	Ecopetrol		20.930 kbbl/d (3.3276×10^3 m3/d)	[60]
Avispa		Cabuyaro Meta	Pacific Rubiales		11.625 kbbl/d (1.8482×10^3 m3/d)
Ocelote		Puerto Gaitán Meta	Hocol		11.228 kbbl/d (1.7851×10^3 m3/d)
Chipirón		Puerto Rondón Arauca	OXY		10.459 kbbl/d (1.6628×10^3 m3/d)	[59]
Jacana		Villanueva Casanare	Geopark		7.477 kbbl/d (1.1887×10^3 m3/d)
Cupiagua		Aguazul Casanare	Ecopetrol		5.358 kbbl/d (851.9 m3/d)
Apiay		Villavicencio Meta	Ecopetrol	Gachetá Une
Arauca		Arauca Arauca	Ecopetrol
Cusiana		Tauramena Casanare	Ecopetrol	Mirador Barco Guadalupe

• Other fields^[53]
  • Caño Verde
  • Chaparrito
  • Concesión
  • Corcel
  • Cravo Sur
  • La Gloria
  • Santiago
  • Trinidad
  • Valdivia

Mining

Mining activities in the Llanos Basin are restricted to certain areas, resulting in less conflicts, more common with indigenous peoples in the Amazonian part of Colombia.^[61]

• gold^[62]
• halite^[63]
• coal^[64]

In San José del Guaviare platinum is mined.^[65]

Mining in the Llanos Basin and surrounding areas

Resources	Map	Department	Municipality	Mine	Notes
halite		Meta	Restrepo	Upín	[63][66]
gold			Puerto Rico		[62]
		Arauca	Arauca
gold		Guaviare	San José del Guaviare
platinum, iron, albite, andradite (var: melanite), 'apatite', arfvedsonite, 'biotite', calcite, cancrinite, epidote, fluorite, 'garnet', microcline, 'monazite', nepheline, siderite, titanite, zircon					[65][67]
coal		Casanare	Recetor		[64]

Paleontology

Compared to many fossiliferous formations in Colombia, the Llanos Basin has been lean in fossil content. Most of the basin stratigraphy is only known from wells.

Paleozoic outcrops surrounding and perforating the planar geography have provided fossils dating back to the Cambrian; the Duda and Ariarí Formations.

Several fossiliferous formations of contemporaneous depositional environments have provided many unique fossils indicative of paleoclimatic conditions; turtle fossils were described from Los Cuervos in the Cesar-Ranchería Basin, and the Mirador Formation in the Catatumbo Basin direct northwest of the Llanos Basin has provided many fossil flora.^[68]

Other correlative units with surrounding basins

• Guayabo - Sabana and Soatá, Ware, Honda
• León - Honda
• Carbonera - Barzalosa, Castilletes, Jimol
• Mirador - Bogotá - Etayoa
• Los Cuervos - Cerrejón - Titanoboa, crocodylians, turtles, flora
• Los Cuervos - Guaduas - fossil flora
• Gachetá - Chipaque - oysters
• Gachetá - La Luna - many
• Une - Hiló - ammonites
• Farallones Group - Floresta and Cuche

See also

• Sedimentary basins of Colombia
  • Cesar-Ranchería Basin
  • Cocinetas Basin
  • Middle Magdalena Valley
• Neuquén Basin, major petroleum producing basin of Argentina
• Santos Basin, major petroleum producing basin of Brazil
• Eastern Venezuela Basin, primary petroleum producing basin of Venezuela

Sources

Notes

References

Bibliography

General

• Barrero, Dario; Andrés Pardo; Carlos A. Vargas, and Juan F. Martínez. 2007. Colombian Sedimentary Basins: Nomenclature, Boundaries and Petroleum Geology, a New Proposal, 1–92. ANH.
• García González, Mario; Ricardo Mier Umaña; Luis Enrique Cruz Guevara, and Mauricio Vásquez. 2009. Informe Ejecutivo - evaluación del potencial hidrocarburífero de las cuencas colombianas, 1-219. Universidad Industrial de Santander.

Hydrodynamics

• Mora, Andrés; Ricardo Andrés Gómez; Camilo Díaz; Victor Caballero; Mauricio Parra; Carlos Villamizar; Álvaro Lasso; Richard A. Ketcham, and Felipe González Penagos, John Rico and Juan Pablo Arias Martínez. 2019. Water flow, oil biodegradation, and hydrodynamic traps in the Llanos Basin, Colombia. AAPG Bulletin 103. 1225-1264. Accessed 2019-10-26.
• Duarte, Edward; German Bayona; Carlos Jaramillo; Mauricio Parra; Ingrid Romero, and Josué Alejandro Mora. 2017. Identificación de los máximos eventos de inundación marina Miocenos y su uso en la correlación y análisis de la cuenca de antepaís de los Llanos Orientales, Colombia. Boletín de Geología 39. 19-40. Accessed 2019-10-26.
• Bartha, Attila; Nelly De Nicolais; Vinod Sharma; S.K. Roy; Rajiv Srivastava; Andrew E. Pomerantz; Milton Sanclemente; Wilmar Pérez, and Robert K. Nelson, Christopher M. Reddy, Jonas Gros, J. Samuel Arey, Jaron Lelijveld, Sharad Dubey, Diego Tortella, Thomas Hantschel, Kenneth E. Peters and Oliver C. Mullins. 2015. Combined Petroleum System Modeling and Comprehensive Two-Dimensional Gas Chromatography To Improve Understanding of the Crude Oil Chemistry in the Llanos Basin, Colombia. Energy & Fuels, American Chemical Society 29. 4755-4767. Accessed 2019-10-26.
• Gómez Galarza, Yohaney; Franklin Yoris; Javier Rodríguez; Fredy Portillo, and Ysidro Araujo. 2010. Aspectos hidrodinámicos, estructurales y estratigráficos del Campo Rubiales. Geo Petróleo 9. 1-28. Accessed 2017-06-07.
• Gómez, A.; C. Jaramillo; M. Parra, and A. Mora. 2009. Huesser Horizon: A lake and marine incursion in Northwestern South America during the Early Miocene. PALAIOS 24. 199-210. Accessed 2019-10-26.

Tectonics

• Paris, Gabriel; Michael N. Machette; Richard L. Dart, and Kathleen M. Haller. 2000a. Map and Database of Quaternary Faults and Folds in Colombia and its Offshore Regions, 1–66. USGS. Accessed 2017-09-18.
• Paris, Gabriel; Michael N. Machette; Richard L. Dart, and Kathleen M. Haller. 2000b. Map of Quaternary Faults and Folds of Colombia and Its Offshore Regions, 1. USGS. Accessed 2017-09-18.

Petroleum

• Martínez Sánchez, Dilan, and Giovanny Jiménez. 2019. Hydraulic fracturing considerations: Insights from analogue models, and its viability in Colombia. Earth Sciences Research Journal 23. 5-15. Accessed 2019-10-26. ISSN 1794-6190
• Vargas Jiménez, Carlos A. 2012. Evaluating total Yet-to-Find hydrocarbon volume in Colombia. Earth Sciences Research Journal 16. 1–290. Accessed 2017-06-14.
• Mojica, Jairo; Oscar J. Arévalo, and Hardany Castillo. 2009. Cuencas Catatumbo, Cesar – Ranchería, Cordillera Oriental, Llanos Orientales, Valle Medio y Superior del Magdalena, 1–65. ANH. Accessed 2017-06-14.
• Piedrahita, Carlos, and Clara L. Montaña. 2007. Methodology implemented for the 3D-Seismic modelling using GoCad and NORSAR 3D Software applied to complex areas in the Llanos foothills. Earth Sciences Research Journal 11. 35-43. Accessed 2019-10-26.
• Hernández Pardo, Orlando; Ralph R.B. von Frese, and Jeong Woo Kim. 2007. Crustal thickness variations and seismicity of northwestern South America. Earth Sciences Research Journal 11. 81-94. Accessed 2019-10-26.
• N., N. 2006. Cuenca Llanos Orientales - Estudio Integrado - Crudos Pesados, 1-10. ANH. Accessed 2017-06-07.

Paleontology

• Jaramillo, Carlos A., and D.L. Dilcher. 2001. Middle Paleogene palynology of Central Colombia, South America: A study of pollen and spores from tropical latitudes. Palaeontographica Abteilung B 258. 87-213. Accessed 2019-10-26.

Reports

• Pinto Valderrama, Jorge Eduardo; José Pedro Mora Ortiz; Gloria Reátiga Tarazona; Jorge Alberto Rey Pilonieta; Silvia Johana Toloza Hormiga; Diego Andrés Torres Coronado; David Ricardo Vargas Mojica, and Cristian Julián Zafra Manrique. 2010. Geología del Piedemonte Llanero en la Cordillera Oriental, departamentos de Arauca y Casanare, 1-64. INGEOMINAS & Universidad Industrial de Santander. Accessed 2017-08-04.
• Terraza, Roberto; Diana Montoya; Germán Reyes; Giovanni Moreno; Jaime Fúquen; Eliana Torres Jaimes; Myriam López Cardona; Álvaro Nivia Guevara, and Fernando Etayo Serna. 2013. Geología de la Plancha 229 - Gachalá - 1:100,000, 1–296. Servicio Geológico Colombiano. Accessed 2017-08-04.
• Patiño, Alejandro; Jaime Fuquen; Julián Ramos; Andrea Pedraza; Leonardo Ceballos; Lyda Pinzón; Yadira Jerónimo; Leidy Álvarez, and Andrea Torres. 2011. Cartografía geológica de la Plancha 247 - Cáqueza - 1:100,000. INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2017-08-04.
• Acosta, Jorge E., and Carlos E. Ulloa. 2002. Mapa geológico del Departamento de Cundinamarca 1:250,000 - Memoria Explicativa, 1–108. INGEOMINAS.
• Pulido, Orlando, and Luz Stella Gómez. 2001. Geología de la Plancha 266 - Villavicencio - 1:100,000, 1–52. INGEOMINAS.

Maps

• ANH, .. 2017. Mapa de Tierras, 1. ANH. Accessed 2018-06-02.

Departmental

• Reyes, Germán, and Ana Milena Cardozo. 1999. Mapa Geológico de Arauca 1:250,000, 1. INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2017-09-21.
• Acosta, Jorge; Carlos Ulloa; Pilar García, and Orlando Solano. 1999. Mapa Geológico de Cundinamarca, 1. INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2017-09-21.
• Rodríguez, Antonio José. 2002. Mapa Geológico del Meta 1:500,000, 1. INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2017-09-21.

Local

• Fúquen, Jaime; Leonardo Ceballos; Andrea Pedraza, and Edwin Marín. 2010. Plancha 99 - Villa del Rosario - 1:100,000, 1. INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2018-06-01.
• Royero, José María; J. Zambrano; Rommel Daconte; H. Mendoza, and Rodrigo Vargas. 1999. Plancha 111 - Toledo - 1:100,000, 1. INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2017-06-06.
• Daconte B., Rommel, and Rosalba Salinas E. 1982. Plancha 122 - Río Cobugón - 1:100,000, 1. INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2018-06-01.
• Vargas, Rodrigo; Alfonso Arias; Luis Jaramillo, and Noel Tellez. 1984. Plancha 136 - Málaga - 1:100,000, 1. INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2017-06-06.
• López, Carolina; Camilo Dávila; Francisco González; Eduardo Parra; Claudia Chaquea; Carolina Ojeda; Carlos Q.; Valentina Espinel, and José A. Lancheros. 2011. Plancha 139 - Betoyes - 1:100,000, 1. INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2017-06-06.
• López, Carolina; Camilo Dávila; Francisco González; Eduardo Parra; Claudia Chaquea; Carolina Ojeda; Carlos Q.; Valentina Espinel, and José A. Lancheros. 2011. Plancha 155 - Puerto Rondón - 1:100,000, 1. INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2017-06-06.
• Ulloa, Carlos E.; Erasmo Rodríguez, and Ricardo Escovar. 1998. Plancha 192 - Laguna de Tota - 1:100,000, 1. INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2017-06-06.
• Terraza, Roberto; Giovanni Moreno; José A. Buitrago; Adrián Pérez, and Diana María Montoya. 2010. Plancha 210 - Guateque - 1:100,000, 1. INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2017-06-06.
• Buitrago, José Alberto; Roberto Terraza M., and Fernando Etayo. 1998. Plancha 228 - Santafé de Bogotá Noreste - 1:100,000, 1. INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2017-06-06.
• Ulloa, Carlos E; Ricardo Escovar, and Adolfo H. Pacheco. 2009. Plancha 230 - Monterrey - 1:100,000, 1. INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2017-06-06.
• Acosta, Jorge; Juan Carlos Calcedo, and Carlos Ulloa. 1999. Plancha 265 - Icononzo - 1:100,000, 1. INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2017-06-06.
• Pulido, Orlando; Luz Stella Gómez, and Pedro Marín. 1998. Plancha 266 - Villavicencio - 1:100,000, 1. INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2017-06-06.
• Duarte, Rafael; Mauricio Moreno; Carlos Julio Morales; Henry Villegas; Sonia Alvarado; Milena Téllez; Sonia Pacheco, and Nadia Rojas. 2010. Plancha 267 - Pachaquiaro - 1:100,000, 1. INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2017-06-06.
• Unión Temporal, G&H. 2015. Plancha 284 - Santana - 1:100,000, 1. Servicio Geológico Colombiano. Accessed 2018-06-01.

Further reading

• Bally, A.W., and S. Snelson. 1980. Realms of subsidence. Canadian Society for Petroleum Geology Memoir 6. 9–94. .
• Kingston, D.R.; C.P. Dishroon, and P.A. Williams. 1983. Global Basin Classification System. AAPG Bulletin 67. 2175–2193. Accessed 2017-06-23.
• Klemme, H.D. 1980. Petroleum Basins - Classifications and Characteristics. Journal of Petroleum Geology 3. 187–207. Accessed 2017-06-23.